Wireless Telegraphy is electronic signalling, through the ground, bodies of water, or the air, which does not require the direct metallic connection, from transmitter to receiver, that was needed by the original electric telegraphs. The term covers a number of related technologies developed beginning in the mid-1800s, including earth conduction, electrostatic induction, electromagnetic induction, and, most importantly, electromagnetic radiation (radio).

Radio proved to be by far the most efficient of these methods, so, beginning around 1900, most references to "wireless" actually refer to radio transmissions, and for those purposes "wireless telegraph" was eventually supplanted by the more precise term "radiotelegraph". But, with the eventual near-disappearance of telegraphic signalling, even this latter term is now very rarely used, although text messaging by mobile telephone could be considered a form of radiotelegraphy.

Examples of wireless technology at work

Security systems

One common example of an operation or operations where the implementation of wireless technology may supplement or replace hard wired implementations is in security systems for homes or office buildings. The operations that are required (e.g., detecting whether a door or window is open or closed) may be implemented with the use of hard wired sensors or they may be implemented with the use of wireless sensors which are also equipped with some type of wireless transmitter (e.g., infrared, radio frequency, etc.) to transmit the information concerning the current state of the door or window.

Television remote control

Another example would be the use of a wireless remote control unit to replace the old hard wired remote control units that were sometimes used in the television industry. Some televisions were previously manufactured with hard wired remote controls which plugged in to a receptacle or jack in the television whereas more modern televisions use wireless (generally infrared) remote control units.

Cellular telephones

Perhaps one of the most well known examples of wireless technology in action is the cellular telephone. These instruments use radio waves to enable the operator to make phone calls from many locations world-wide. They can be used anywhere that there is a cellular telephone site to house the equipment that is required to transmit and receive the signal that is used to transfer both voice and data to and from these instruments.

Wireless

The term wireless is normally used to refer to any type of electrical or electronic operation which is accomplished without the use of a "hard wired" connection. Some of these operations may also be accomplished with the use of wires if desired, while others, such as long range communications, are impossible or impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term is commonly used in the telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g., radio transmitters and receivers, remote controls, computer networks, network terminals, etc.) which use some form of energy (e.g.,radio frequency (RF), infrared light, laser light, visible light, acoustic energy, etc.) to transfer information without the use of wires.^[1] Information is transferred in this manner over both short and long distances.

The term "wireless" should not be confused with the term "cordless", which is generally used to refer to powered electrical or electronic devices that are able to operate from a portable power source (e.g., a battery pack) without any cable or cord to limit the mobility of the cordless device through a connection to the mains power supply. It is interesting to note that some cordless devices, such as cordless telephones, are also wireless in the sense that information is transferred from the cordless telephone to the telephone's base unit via some type of wireless communications link. This has caused some disparity in the usage of the term "cordless", for example in Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications.

Analog circuits

Most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a 'circuit' can be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of components.

Analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators.

Some analog circuitry these days may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve upon the basic performance of the circuit. This type of circuit is usually called 'mixed signal'.

Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but puts out only one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled switch having essentially two levels of output.

Digital circuits

Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most common physical representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits. In most cases the number of different states of a node is two, represented by two voltage levels labeled "Low" and "High". Often "Low" will be near zero volts and "High" will be at a higher level depending on the supply voltage in use.

Computers, electronic clocks, and programmable logic controllers (used to control industrial processes) are constructed of digital circuits. Digital Signal Processors are another example.

Electronic devices and components

An electronic component is any indivisible electronic building block packaged in a discrete form with two or more connecting leads or metallic pads. Components are intended to be connected together, usually by soldering to a printed circuit board, to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be packaged singly (resistor, capacitor, transistor, diode etc.) or in more or less complex groups as integrated circuits (operational amplifier, resistor array, logic gate etc). Active components are sometimes called devices rather than components.

Electronic systems and circuits

Electronic systems are used to perform a wide variety of tasks. The main uses of electronic circuits are:

1. The controlling and processing of data.
2. The conversion to/from and distribution of electric power.

Both these applications involve the creation and/or detection of electromagnetic fields and electric currents. While electrical energy had been used for some time prior to the late 19th century to transmit data over telegraph and telephone lines, development in electronics grew exponentially after the advent of radio.

One way of looking at an electronic system is to divide it into 3 parts:

• Inputs – Electronic or mechanical sensors (or transducers). These devices take signals/information from external sources in the physical world (such as antennas or technology networks) and convert those signals/information into current/voltage or digital (high/low) signals within the system.

• Signal processors – These circuits serve to manipulate, interpret and transform inputted signals in order to make them useful for a desired application. Recently, complex signal processing has been accomplished with the use of Digital Signal Processors.

• Outputs – Actuators or other devices (such as transducers) that transform current/voltage signals back into useful physical form (e.g., by accomplishing a physical task such as rotating an electric motor).

For example, a television set contains these 3 parts. The television's input transforms a broadcast signal (received by an antenna or fed in through a cable) into a current/voltage signal that can be used by the device. Signal processing circuits inside the television extract information from this signal that dictates brightness, colour and sound level. Output devices then convert this information back into physical form. A cathode ray tube transforms electronic signals into a visible image on the screen. Magnet-driven speakers convert signals into audible sound.

Commercial digital voltmeter checking a prototype

ELECTRICAL TERMINOLOGY

Knowledge of key electrical terminology is necessary to fully understand
principles in electrical science.
EO 1.2 DEFINE the following terms:
a. Conductor
b. Insulator
c. Resistor
d. Electron current flow
e. Conventional current flow
f. Direct current (DC)
g. Alternating current (AC)
h. Ideal source
i. Real source


Conductors
Conductors are materials with electrons that are loosely bound to their atoms, or materials that
permit free motion of a large number of electrons. Atoms with only one valence electron, such
as copper, silver, and gold, are examples of good conductors. Most metals are good conductors.

Insulators
Insulators, or nonconductors, are materials with electrons that are tightly bound to their atoms
and require large amounts of energy to free them from the influence of the nucleus. The atoms
of good insulators have their valence shells filled with eight electrons, which means they are
more than half filled. Any energy applied to such an atom will be distributed among a relatively
large number of electrons. Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, and dry wood.

Resistors
Resistors are made of materials that conduct electricity, but offer opposition to current flow.
These types of materials are also called semiconductors because they are neither good conductors
nor good insulators. Semiconductors have more than one or two electrons in their valence shells,
but less than seven or eight. Examples of semiconductors are carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, and
lead. Each has four valence electrons.
Voltage
The basic unit of measure for potential difference is the volt (symbol V), and, because the volt
unit is used, potential difference is called voltage. An object’s electrical charge is determined
by the number of electrons that the object has gained or lost. Because such a large number of
electrons move, a unit called the "coulomb" is used to indicate the charge. One coulomb is equal
to 6.28 x 1018 (billion, billion) electrons. For example, if an object gains one coulomb of
negative charge, it has gained 6,280,000,000,000,000,000 extra electrons. A volt is defined as
a difference of potential causing one coulomb of current to do one joule of work. A volt is also
defined as that amount of force required to force one ampere of current through one ohm of
resistance. The latter is the definition with which we will be most concerned in this module.
Current
The density of the atoms in copper wire is such that the valence orbits of the individual atoms
overlap, causing the electrons to move easily from one atom to the next. Free electrons can drift
from one orbit to another in a random direction. When a potential difference is applied, the
direction of their movement is controlled. The strength of the potential difference applied at each
end of the wire determines how many electrons change from a random motion to a more
directional path through the wire. The movement or flow of these electrons is called electron
current flow or just current.
To produce current, the electrons must be moved by a potential difference. The symbol for
current is (I). The basic measurement for current is the ampere (A). One ampere of current is
defined as the movement of one coulomb of charge past any given point of a conductor during
one second of time.

Electron Flow Through a Copper Wire with a Potential Difference
The direction of electron flow, shown in Figure 10, is from the negative (-) side of the battery,
through the wire, and back to the positive (+) side of the battery. The direction of electron flow
is from a point of negative potential to a point of positive potential. The solid arrow shown in

.As electrons vacate their atoms during electron
current flow, positively charged atoms (holes) result. The flow of electrons in one direction
causes a flow of positive charges. The direction of the positive charges is in the opposite
direction of the electron flow. This flow of positive charges is known as conventional current
and is shown in Figure 10 as a dashed arrow. All of the electrical effects of electron flow from
negative to positive, or from a higher potential to a lower potential, are the same as those that
would be created by a flow of positive charges in the opposite direction. Therefore, it is
important to realize that both conventions are in use and that they are essentially equivalent; that
is, all effects predicted are the same.
Generally, electric current flow can be classified as one of two general types: Direct Current
(DC) or Alternating Current (AC). A direct current flows continuously in the same direction.
An alternating current periodically reverses direction. We will be studying DC and AC current
in more detail later in this text. An example of DC current is that current obtained from a
battery. An example of AC current is common household current.